Key Responsibilities and Related Tasks in the Chart

This section discusses each of the key responsibilities in the “Managing a Crop Rotation System” chart and illustrates some of the important, difficult, or less obvious tasks, with examples from the operations of expert farmers (see sidebar 2.7).

Responsibility A: Identify Rotation Goals

Rotations are a means to meet overall farm goals. Expert farmers manage their field rotations in the context of their whole farm systems. Although they may not consciously review them, each farmer has a set of farming goals that guide rotation planning for each field and for the whole farm. Some goals are common to all farms (sidebar 2.8); others are unique to a particular farmer. Examples of experts’ rotation goals include:

• Jack Gurley’s goal is to maximize production on 100 percent of his small acreage without sacrificing soil health and tilth.
• One of Will Stevens’s goals is to design rotations to keep brassicas out of fields with a history of clubroot.
• Since Jim Gerritsen produces certified seed potatoes that must be disease free, the goal of his entire rotation is to control potato diseases and increase organic matter.

Under responsibility A, the most important and most difficult task is reviewing the overall farm operation. This includes reviewing the production plan: the crops, cover crops, fallows, and livestock that need to be allocated to particular field areas in the coming year. Certain factors— including cropland available, equipment, cash flow, crop mix, and marketing strategies—define the parameters within which the rotation must be designed. Another important task is to identify which problems can be addressed by rotation.

Responsibility B: Identify Resources and Constraints

Identifying the possibilities and limits of the overall farm production plan and the rotation for each field is central to planning. At the farm scale, parameters such as market demand, available land, equipment, projected labor availability, and regulatory issues have to be reviewed annually. Farmers consider complying and keeping up with regulations to be among their most difficult tasks. This responsibility also includes numerous “communication” tasks, such as establishing market relationships, making labor arrangements, accessing information, and contacting suppliers.

Constraints may include field-specific limits like whether a field is ready for planting and harvest early or late in the season and how that relates to market timing, cash flow, and profitability. Problems of specific fields in a particular year must be identified. For example, heavy weed pressure the previous season may preclude small-seeded crops. Crop cultural needs, such as spacing and trellising, also have to be accommodated. Constraints imposed by equipment, such as row width, must be figured into the rotation plan. Crops with similar irrigation, fertility, labor, and cultivation regimes or planting times are often managed as a block to simplify field operations.

Responsibility C: Gather Data

Rotation decisions, for each field and for the whole farm, are based on an impressive array of information. Some information is collected on the farm, and some is gathered from off-farm sources. Observing crops and fields is on the expert farmers’ list of the ten most important tasks (sidebar 2.7). All the expert farmers agreed that regularly walking the fields is a crucial way to gather data and monitor ongoing conditions for the current and coming seasons. Will Stevens interviews his workers throughout the season, because they are able to observe many field situations he does not have the opportunity to see. Even in winter, expert farmers are observing their fields, sometimes while cross-country skiing or walking the dog. This helps them review field conditions and logistics of previous seasons and organize their thinking for the season ahead.

Production and marketing information usually needs to be updated and cross-checked annually. A new crop, research recommendations, or market arrangements may require that new data be considered. For example, seed potato grower Jim Gerritsen uses his rotation to interrupt potato disease life cycles and pest vectors. He reviews the scientific research annually, staying current to take advantage of any advances in the understanding of the ecology of his system.

Tasks C-9 and C-10, “Categorize crops” and “Categorize fields,” are among the most critical steps in data gathering. Categorization of crops and fields helps guide the optimal allocation of particular crops to individual fields or beds each year. These tasks rely on the cumulative process of integrating information and experience over many growing seasons. Information about both crops and fields is necessary to effectively match them in a given year. The first task is to characterize every cash and cover crop in the farm’s crop mix according to a range of important characteristics, from the number and timing of harvests to soil requirements (see sidebar 2.9). Farmers also characterize their fields, on the basis of the field’s permanent characteristics (such as slope and exposure) and shorter-term conditions (such as weed pressure). Categorizations provide a reference of “interchangeable crops” if a plan needs modification. For example, it is useful to know what late crops or varieties can go into a field in a wet year. The variety of characteristics considered indicates the complexity of the issues farmers balance in crop rotation decisions.

Sidebar 2.9 Categorization of Crops and Fields
Crop Characteristics	Field Characteristics
The list below lists crop characteristics from most to least important, as ranked by expert farmers.	These relatively permanent characteristics of a field are difficult to change; many affect the type of equipment that can be used and the timing of operations.
Botanical family Market demand Season of planting, harvest, labor, and land use Susceptibility to pests and diseases Cash vs. cover crop Ability to compete with weeds Annual, biennial, perennial, or overwintering annual Direct-seeded vs. transplanted “Givers” vs. “takers” Heavy vs. light feeders Cultural practices (for example, spraying, cultivation, irrigation) Preferred seedbed conditions Spacing requirements Income per acre Effect on cash flow Harvest timing Costs per acre Tolerance of mechanical cultivation Ability to trap nutrients Root vs. leaf and fruit Drought tolerance Row vs. block planted Large vs. small seeded Deep vs. shallow rooted Tolerance of poor drainage Shade tolerant vs. intolerant Pollination requirements	Recent planting history (1–5 years) Within-field variability Proximity to water source Erosion potential Drainage Sunny or shady Known problems with weeds insects poor tilth or hardpan wildlife Slope Moisture-holding capacity pH Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) soil type Aspect (north, south, east, west) Air drainage—frost pockets Size Cation-exchange capacity Proximity to barn or access roads Stoniness Shape (corners, row lengths) Proximity to similar fields

Responsibility D: Analyze Data

All of the decisions and information generated through previous tasks and responsibilities are pulled together for analysis at this key phase of the planning process. The data on market options, equipment, labor and seed availability, and  financial  constraints,  along with the overall farm and rotation goals are reviewed. Information is cross-referenced and, when necessary, weighted. Possible trade-offs are considered. For example, the field crew may be able to plant two fields to high-value crops but not also harvest an early crop the same week. Crop cultural needs are compared to each field’s characteristics and conditions. The experts assess soil conditions and determine how pest (animal, insect, weed) and disease pressures from the previous season should be addressed. This is among the most difficult tasks. Even weather projections are considered. Every possible crop mix is analyzed. Various possible pairings of crop to field are outlined, and options for each field are compared.

Responsibility E: Plan Crop Rotation

This responsibility is the ultimate synthesis of information and results in a production plan and a rotation plan. Expert farmers distinguish between these two types of plans. The production plan specifies what needs to be grown (the crop mix) and how it will be grown, whereas the rotation plan determines where each crop will be planted. Final decisions about the crop mix and the allocation of crops to fields and fields to crops are pivotal to this responsibility. Information such as what crops to grow, in what quantities, labor availability at various times in the season, required equipment, and desired harvest dates are integrated into the rotation plan for each field and for the entire farm.

Two questions bounce back and forth. One is what will be grown in each field? The other is where will each crop grow? These questions are answered based on observation and experience. Several steps are involved. First, the cropping history of each field or bed for the past three or more years is reviewed. This includes what crops and crop families were grown; how well they performed; any particular successes or failures; and any logistical issues relating to equipment use, irrigation, harvesting, or labor. Obviously, the size of the field and market needs (how much of each crop is required) are also considered. The allocation of crops to fields includes consideration of future cropping plans as well as the cropping history of a field. The rotation plan must be responsive to weed pressures or other legacies from earlier years and must provide future crops with favorable conditions.

Expert farmers first assign their highest-priority crops to fields (or beds). High-priority crops include the most profitable crops, cover crops with the greatest benefits, and crops particularly vulnerable to pests, diseases, or weather. Decisions are also based on high-priority fields—for example, those that have the highest fertility, are prime locations for u-pick crops, or have current problems that need to be addressed. Remaining fields (or parts of fields) are then assigned to the remaining crops, cover crops, fal- low areas, and sometimes pasturage for livestock. All these decisions are based on both business and biology. An example is provided in sidebar 2.10.

The crops and fields are tentatively matched, creating a cropping plan for the entire farm for the year. Many experts plot this information on farm maps and notebooks. They take this initial plan and, in the words of one, “Farm it in my head.” That is, they work through the sequence of field operations from tillage to harvest over the entire season for each crop and field. Several expert farmers take their plans into the field and walk the farm for this task. They think through why any sequence might not work, reviewing any possible logistical or biological conflicts like timing of operations or spread of pests between adjacent crops. They then adjust the plan as necessary.

Responsibility F: Execute Rotation

Farmers indicated that executing the rotation involves many of the most important and difficult tasks (see sidebar 2.7). They identified maintaining crops (including activities such as weeding, thinning, and irrigation) as the most important task and the second most difficult task in crop rotation. Scheduling tillage and planting for all the fields across an entire farm every season is also a challenge for most farmers. Although they generally want to till the soil as early as possible to accelerate soil warming and residue breakdown, they must wait for workable soil moisture conditions. Other critical steps in crop production and central to executing the crop rotation are soil preparation and planting. Delays in soil preparation or planting may cause crop failures due to poor emergence, runaway weeds, or inadequately broken down cover crops and require shifts in the crop rotation (see sidebar 2.11).

Expert farmers attempt to plant priority fields or beds and their most important crops as scheduled in their plan. If they have to alter the plan, they still prioritize high-value or sensitive crops and fields. Many decisions and adjustments have to be made on the fly.

In early spring, farmers monitor the weather—sometimes hourly—as they implement and alter their rotation plan. Problems related to weather, cover crop maturity, crop emergence, and weeds may cause farmers to alter their original plan. Soil moisture conditions affect the timing of tillage and subsequent field operations (see sidebar 2.12). Cover crops are monitored to determine maturity, thickness of stands, and optimal time for incorporation. Farmers also monitor the breakdown and incorporation of crop and cover crop residues. Soil and air temperatures influence planting and transplanting decisions, as well. Any of these factors can cause crops to be reassigned to different fields or beds.

While a change necessitated by weather or the conditions in one field can cause reassignment of crops around the farm, general and farm-specific rotation goals and guidelines remain the basis of every decision; for example, cucurbit crops will never be planted in the same field two years in a row. Most expert farmers anticipate problems that might occur and have contingency plans ready (see sidebar 2.13). Expert farmer Paul Arnold suggested that this ability to make effective on-the-fly adjustments is an important factor in the success of his farm. In the event of crop failure, crops may be abandoned, replanted, or replaced with a cover crop or even a different cash crop. Drew Norman, another expert farmer, described this pro- cess as finding “a profitable punt.”

As the season progresses, short-season crops like salad greens are harvested, subsequent crops are planted, and cover crops are seeded or plowed under. Even as the rotation plan is implemented, the process of crop-to-field allocation and prioritization continues. The expert farmers emphasize the importance of recording actual cropping as it happens (particularly deviations from the plan) for later comparison with their initial rotation plan for the year.

Responsibility G: Evaluate Rotation Execution

Throughout the season, expert growers monitor the performance of their fields, each crop, and the farm as a whole. They record how their plans have worked and evolved. This is not just to solve problems in the current season, but also to observe, learn, and collect ideas and data for future seasons. Expert farmers do this directly and through communicating with their crews. Several said they interview their field crews at the end of the season. Workers often have suggestions, such as improving the farm layout, that enhance the efficiency of operations.

At the end of the season, growers carefully assess what actually happened relative to what they expected based on the original rotation plan. The factors they consider include yields; soil conditions; timing of events and operations; costs of crop production; disease, weed, and pest levels and their control; crop losses; labor satisfaction and efficiency; and profitability of each crop and of the whole farm. By walking around the farm and by analyzing data at their desk, they review the success of the production year. They compare the results with those of previous years to detect any trends or patterns. When attempting to analyze the causes of success or failure of various elements of the rotation, growers talk to other growers and extension agents to determine whether problems were the result of actions on their farm rather than, for example, a bad disease year for all farms in the region, regardless of rotation. Assessing whether regional conditions or on-farm mistakes were the source of problems is among the most difficult tasks, even for experts.

Rotation goals and rotation plans serve as benchmarks to measure the success of the cropping season and the rotation. Expert farmers consider how closely they followed biological principles in their rotation, whether they met their production and market objectives, and how their rotation execution supported their biological and business goals. Successes and failures are assessed, analyzed, and evaluated. The results are recorded to assist in planning and management for future seasons. Farmers note that assessing the profitability of crops, especially on a field-by-field basis, is another difficult task.

Responsibility H: Adjust Rotation Plan

As the cropping season closes in late fall, expert farmers begin the final phase of the annual rotation cycle in which they modify their rotations and plan for the coming year. This occurs concurrently with the evaluation of the past season. They revisit the tasks associated with “Identify rotation goals” (Responsibility A). They then focus on the productivity and problems of each field and of the overall farm. They first consider altering the crop mix by adding or removing crops or changing the area planted to a crop. Such decisions are affected by the market, as well as by field and crop performance and rotation imperatives. For example, Paul and Sandy Arnold found that high-quality, disease-free beets were very important for sales at farmers’ markets, so they decided to open up new acreage to break up the life cycle of soilborne beet diseases. This resulted in adjustment of their entire rotation so that their fields spend a longer time in cover crops.

Growers may also decide to change their field management by changing the order or dates of planting or plow-down of cover crops. They may decide to shift crops to alternative fields, try new crop sequences, or improve fertility of a field by planting it into a cover crop or hay ahead of schedule. They record notes for the next year’s rotation plan, new guidelines for contingencies, and results of experiments. The next year’s plan begins to take shape.

Adjusting the rotation plan presents three particularly challenging tasks: (1) developing collaborations to solve problems, (2) investigating markets, and (3) tweaking the crop mix. Tweaking the crop mix requires balancing market opportunities with biological needs. Growers indicated that this is a core task in managing crop rotations.

Expert growers stress the importance of experimentation, play, and a sense of adventure in managing their rotations. The art of adjusting every aspect of the rotation was discussed as the core of successfully managing rotations. While the NEON chart makes rotation planning seem linear and quantifiable, all of our farmer panelists felt that managing rotations is a continuous, integrated, intuitive, and cyclical process developed through intensive information gathering and extensive experience. They glean and incorporate new ideas into their rotations, which continue to evolve. These expert growers agreed on the importance of making new and interesting mistakes each season.

The NEON "Managing a Crop Rotation" System

A	Identify Rotation Goals	A-1 Review overall farm & personal goals (e.g., long & short term, mission statement)	A-2 Review overall farm operation (e.g., marketing strategies, profitability, farm family/team, production system [crop & livestock mix], length of season, equipment, raised beds or row crops, on-farm compost production)	A-3 Identify problems that can be addressed through rotation	A-4 Set rotation goals (e.g., manage insects, disease, weeds, soil, field logistics; see sidebar 2.8, page 14, set custom goals)
		A-5 Review annual production plan (e.g., crop & cover crop species & varieties, desired quantities)	A-6 Balance acreage, at whole farm level, between cash crops, cover crops, livestock, and “fallow” (e.g., bare soil, stale seed-bed, sod/hay, permanent pasture, or woodlot; consider role of livestock in fertility and weed control)	A-7 Update records (e.g., whole farm plan & farm mission, record annual production plan)
B	Identify Resources & Constraints	B-1 Identify personal strengths, weaknesses, likes & dislikes	B-2 Determine available land (e.g., quantity, suitability)	B-3 Determine irrigation potential for each field (e.g., equipment, water availability)	B-4 Identify markets for cash crops	B-5 Review projected annual cash flow
		B-6 Identify neighbor issues (e.g., compost pile location, spraying, chemical drift, pollination, genetic pollution)	B-7 Inventory farm equipment & facilities (e.g., greenhouses, tractors, post- harvest handling areas)	B-8 Assess crop cultural needs (e.g., spacing, trellising, crop height, microclimates, irrigation)	B-9 Identify cultural constraints based on equipment (e.g., row width, irrigation)	B-10 Inventory labor availability
		B-11 Assess labor strengths, weaknesses, likes & dislikes	B-12 Identify input suppliers (e.g., plants & seeds, amendments, manure/ compost, cropping materials, post-harvest packaging)	B-13 Review regulations (e.g., organic certification, phosphorus regulations, other applicable relevant regulations)	B-14 Determine available rotation management time	B-15 Establish and maintain relationships with off-farm experts (e.g., extension, scouts, land grants, others; talk to laborers)
C	Gather Data	C-1 Walk fields regularly to observe crop growth & field conditions	C-2 Create field maps including acreage, land, soils (including NRCS soil map data), physical characteristics, frost pockets, air drainage, microclimates; plot areas with known problems on map	C-3 Test soils (e.g., N, P, K, secondary- & micronutrients, pH, cation exchange capacity, organic matter)	C-4 Network with farmers & others (e.g., helpers, extension, others; site-specific & practice-related)
		C-5 Study existing research data (e.g., cover crops, insects, diseases, fertility, weeds)	C-6 Consult field records (e.g., what was planted where in previous years, successes & failures	C-7 Consult meteorological data (e.g., frost free dates, rainfall)	C-8 Consult sales data & market trends
		C- 9 Categorize crops (see sidebar 2.9, page 15)	C-10 Categorize  fields (see sidebar 2.9, page 15)	C-11 Maintain records (e.g., up-to- date maps, information on crops & fields, etc.)
D	Analyze Data	D-1 Assess weather probabilities	D-2 Assess soil conditions on a bed or field basis (e.g., residue, moisture, temperature, compac- tion, last year’s mulch; see sidebar 2.12, page 18)	D-3 Compare crop cultural needs to field characteristics (e.g., soil test results, crop residues)	D-4 Assess whether pest, disease, or weed pressures from previous season must be addressed
		D-5 Determine applicability of research data, advice, & other farmers’ experience	D-6 Assess crop mix for whole farm (e.g., market data, soil tests)	D-7 Maintain records (e.g., record data analysis results & decisions made)
E	Plan Crop Rotation	E-1 Review recent cropping history (e.g., 3 or more years; field or bed basis; by crop & sequence of botanical families, performance, production, logistical issues)	E-2 Consider field needs & conditions (e.g., disease, fertility)	E-3 Group crops according to maturity dates (e.g., for simultaneous or sequential harvesting)	E-4 Consider harvest logistics (e.g., access to crops; field & row length, minimum walking & box-carrying distance, use of harvest equipment, plan for ease of loading onto trucks)		E-5 Consider companion planting options
		E-6 Group crops according to botanical families	E-7 Determine crop quantities & area (e.g., 500 row feet or 2 acres; add 10% for contingencies)	E-8 Determine field locations of most profitable, beneficial, and “at-risk”crops	E-9 Determine field locations of lower-priority crops		E-10 Schedule succession plantings of cash crops
		E-11 Determine cover crop types, field locations, & quantities	E-12 Integrate cash & cover crops (e.g., simultaneous [overseed, interseed, undersow] or sequential [one follows another])	E-13 Determine managed fallow field locations	E-14 Plan crop/rotation experiments (e.g., new trials, new-to-this-farm rotations)		E-15 Draft annual plans (e.g., rotation plan, production plan, soil fertility plan)
		E-16 Develop guidelines for contingencies in case rotation does not go as planned (e.g., written or mental guidelines for improvisation: principles, priorities to use to make on-the-spot decisions)		E-17 Use senses & imagination to review plan (e.g., field plans and logistics; walk fields and visualize rotation, “farm it in your head”)			E-18 Maintain records (e.g., write down plan, draw maps)
F	Execute Rotation	F-1 Organize rotation planning & management tools (e.g., planting charts, equipment booklets, maps, reference materials)	F-2 Review rotation & production plans	F-3 Confirm markets for cash crops (change crops or quantities if price or demand requires)	F-4 Implement production plan (e.g., secure labor & train labor, prepare equipment [including irrigation], order seeds & supplies)		F-5 Monitor weather (e.g., short term [best day for planting]; long term [need to change plan due to drought])
		F-6 Monitor soil & crop conditions (e.g., field readiness for planting; cover crop maturity; residue incorporation)	F-7 Monitor greenhouse conditions (e.g., observe condition of transplants relative to soil conditions; slow or accelerate growth if necessary to produce appropriate-sized transplants on-time)	F-8 Prepare work schedule	F-9 Prepare soils as soon as weather permits (using appropriate tillage, prepare fields when field conditions are right, avoiding compaction & allowing time for any cover crops or residue to adequately break down)		F-10 Plant crops (follow plan & planting calendar as conditions permit; capture planting windows, “seize the moment”; adjust plan as needed based on contingency guidelines [see E-16])
		F-11 Keep unused soil covered (e.g., cover crop, mulch, trap crops)	F-12 Maintain crops (e.g., cultivate, spray, trellis, irrigate, harvest)	F-13 Adjust actions according to field & crop conditions (e.g., weather, soils, weed pressure; assign crops to different fields or beds to adjust for wetness or other problems; replant if necessary, abandon crop or replace with a cover crop to cut losses)	F-14 Maintain records (e.g., what was actually planted where, successes & failures, planting & harvest dates, compliance with regulations & organic certification)
G	Evaluate Rotation Execution	G-1 Assess soil quality (e.g., expected vs. actual)	G-2 Assess yields (e.g., varieties, cover crops; expected vs. actual)	G-3 Assess timing & sequencing (e.g., expected vs. actual)	G-4 Assess costs of production (e.g., by crop, expected vs. actual)		G-5 Assess profitability on a whole farm & crop-by-crop basis (e.g., expected vs. actual)
		G-6 Assess disease control (e.g., expected vs. actual)	G-7 Assess weed control (e.g., expected vs. actual)	G-8 Assess insect & pest control (e.g., expected vs. actual)	G-9 Interview work crew for suggestions; determine likes, dislikes		G-10 Measure performance against rotation goals (positive or negative outcomes)
		G-11 Determine if successes or failures were due to internal/on-farm or macro/ regional issues (e.g., consult other farmers, extension agents, others)	G-12 Analyze success & failure of rotation plan (e.g., review goals, identify factors, consult external information sources, draw conclusions)	G-13 Maintain records (e.g., production records, experiment results, successes & failures, speculations)
H	Adjust Rotation Plan	H-1 Identify successful combinations & repeat (set successful rotations on “automatic pilot”)	H-2 Develop collaborations with researchers & farmers to create solutions to problems or verify successes (e.g., trials & experiments)	H-3 Investigate new market opportunities (“smell the niche”)	H-4 Tweak crop mix (e.g., based on market data & field performance; consider adding or abandoning crops or elements of rotation as necessary)		H-5 Tweak field management (e.g., change planting or plowdown dates, crop locations; shift crop families to different fields; put poorly performing fields into hay ahead of schedule)
		H-6 Upgrade or improve equipment as necessary	H-7 Start process over (return to A: Identify Rotation Goals)	H-8 Maintain records (e.g., keep notes of actual changes implemented)